(Information given here has been abridged from authentic sources like NIH, USA)

Biopsy
A biopsy is the removal of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination and/or culture, often to help the physician make a diagnosis. The method of tissue removal varies among the type of biopsies. In a needle (percutaneous) biopsy, the tissue sample is simply obtained by use of a syringe. A needle is passed into the tissue to be biopsied, and cells are removed through the needle. Depending on the location of the tissue to be biopsied, needle biopsies are often performed under X-ray (usually CT scan) guidance. In an open biopsy, an incision is made in the skin, the organ is exposed, and a tissue sample is taken. Closed biopsy involves a much smaller incision than open biopsy. The small incision is made to allow insertion of a visualization device, which can guide the physician to the appropriate area to take the sample.

A biopsy may be performed to obtain healthy tissue so it can be evaluated for transplant tissue-type matching. Biospsies are more often done to obtain unhealthy tissue to diagnose disease.

Cancer General Concepts
Cancer involves the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that have mutated from normal tissues. This growth can kill when these cells prevent normal function of vital organs or spread throughout the body, damaging essential systems. There are many kinds of cancers. Cancer arises out of normal cells in the body, and can develop in almost any organ or tissue, such as the lung, colon, breast, skin, bones, or nerve tissue. Sevearl causes of cancers are known. However, the cause of many cancers remains unknown. Symptoms and signs of cancer vary based on the type and location of the tumor. Common tests to help in diagnosis of cancer include: CT scan; Complete blood count (CBC); Blood chemistries; Biopsy of the tumor; Bone marrow biopsy (for lymphoma or leukemia); Chest x-ray etc.

Treatment also varies based on the type of cancer and its stage. The stage of a cancer refers to how much it has grown and whether the tumor has spread from its original location. If the cancer is confined to one location and has not spread, the goal for treatment would be surgery and cure. If the tumor has spread to local lymph nodes only, sometimes these can also be removed. If all of the cancer cannot be removed with surgery, the options for treatment include radiation, chemotherapy, or both. Some cancers require a combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. The treatment outcome varies widely among different types of cancer. Even among people with one particular type of cancer, the outcome varies depending on the stage of the tumor at diagnosis. Some cancers can be cured, some that are not curable can still be treated well, and some patients can live for many years with the cancer. Other tumors are rapidly fatal.

Cancer screenings, such as mammography and breast examination for breast cancer and colonoscopy for colon cancer, may help catch these cancers at their early, most treatable stages. Some people at high risk for developing certain cancers can take medication to reduce their risk.

Breast cancer
Breast cancer is a malignant (cancerous) growth that begins in the tissues of the breast. Over the course of a lifetime, one in eight women will be diagnosed with breast cancer. There are several different types of breast cancer. Ductal carcinoma begins in the cells lining the ducts that bring milk to the nipple and accounts for more than 75% of breast cancers. Lobular carcinoma begins in the milk-secreting glands of the breast but is otherwise fairly similar in its behavior to ductal carcinoma. Other varieties of breast cancer can arise from the skin, fat, connective tissues, and other cells present in the breast. Some women have what is known as HER2-positive breast cancer. HER2, short for human epidermal growth factor receptor-2, is a gene that helps control cell growth, division, and repair. When cells have too many copies of this gene, cell growth speeds up. It’s believed that HER2 plays a key role in turning healthy cells into cancerous ones. Some women with breast cancer have too much HER2, and are therefore considered HER2-positive. Research suggests that women with HER2-positive breast cancer have a more aggressive disease and a higher risk of recurrence than those who have HER2 negative breast cancer.


Risk factors for breast cancer include: Age and Gender; Genetic Factors and Family History of Breast Cancer; Early Menstruation and Late Menopause; Oral Contraceptives (birth control pills); Hormone Replacement Therapy(HRT); Obesity; Alcohol Consumption; Chemicals; DES; Radiation; or Additional Risk Factors. Tests and treatment may then be recommended: X-ray mammography; Ultrasound; Needle aspiration or needle biopsy of breast lumps; A surgical biopsy or breast lump removal. If breast cancer is diagnosed, additional testing is performed, including chest X-ray and blood tests. Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or a combination of these may then be recommended for treatment. Many additional factors besides staging can influence the recommended treatment and the likely outcome. These can include the precise cell type and appearance of the cancer, whether the cancer cells respond to hormones, and the presence or absence of genes known to cause breast cancer. Most women receive a combination of treatments. For stage 0 breast cancer, mastectomy or lumpectomy plus radiation is the standard treatment. However, there is some controversy on how best to treat DCIS. For stage 1 and 2 disease, lumpectomy (plus radiation) or mastectomy with at least "sentinel node" lymph node removal is standard treatment. Chemotherapy with or without trastuzumab, hormone therapy, or both may be recommended following surgery. The presence of breast cancer in the axillary lymph nodes is very useful for staging and the appropriate follow-up treatment. Stage III patients are usually treated with surgery followed by chemotherapy with or without hormonal therapy. Radiation therapy may also be considered under special circumstances. Stage IV breast cancer may be treated with surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, or a combination of these (depending on the situation).

Endometrial cancer
Endometrial cancer involves cancerous growth of the endometrium, the lining of the uterus. Endometrial cancer is the most common type of uterine cancer in developed world. Although the exact cause of endometrial cancer is unknown, increased levels of estrogen appear to have a role. Associated conditions include Obesity, Hypertension, & Polycystic ovarian disease. Increased risk is also associated with Nulliparity, Infertility, Early menarche, Late menopause. Changes in the size, shape or consistency of the uterus or its surrounding, supporting structures may exist when the disease is more advanced.

Women with the early stage 1 disease may be candidates for treatment with surgical hysterectomy, but removal of the tubes and ovaries (bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy) is also usually recommended for 2 reasons: tumor cells can spread to the ovaries very early in the disease; and any dormant cancer cells that may be present could possibly be stimulated by estrogen production by the ovaries. Abdominal hysterectomy is recommended over vaginal hysterectomy, because it affords the opportunity to examine and obtain washings of the abdominal cavity to detect any further evidence of cancer. Women with stage 1 disease who are at increased risk for recurrence, and those with stage 2 disease are often offered surgery in combination with radiation therapy. Chemotherapy may be considered in some cases, especially for those with stage 3 and 4 disease. The 5-year survival rate for endometrial cancer following appropriate treatment is: 75 - 95% for stage 1; 50% for stage 2; 30% for stage 3; and Less than 5% for stage 4.

Mammography
A mammogram is an x-ray picture of the breasts. It is used to find tumors and cysts, and to help tell the difference between noncancerous (benign) and cancerous (malignant) disease. One breast at a time is rested on a flat surface that contains the x-ray plate, and a device called a compressor will be pressed firmly against the breast to help flatten out the breast tissue. The x-ray pictures are taken from several angles. One may be asked to hold your breath as each picture is taken.
Mammography is performed to screen healthy women for signs of breast cancer. It is also used to evaluate a woman who has symptoms of a breast disease, such as a lump, nipple discharge, breast pain, dimpling of the skin on the breast, or retraction of the nipple. Screening mammograms are important for early breast cancer detection. The American Cancer Society recommends mammogram screening every year for all women age 40 and older. The National Cancer Institute recommends mammogram screening every 1 to 2 years for women age 40 and older. A poorly outlined, opaque area is more likely to suggest breast cancer. Sometimes, the doctor will use ultrasound to further examine the abnormality and evaluate the next best step. When findings from a mammogram or ultrasound look suspicious, a biopsy is performed to determine if a lesion is benign or cancerous.