Abdominal mass
An abdominal mass is a localized swelling or enlargement in one area of the abdomen. An abdominal mass is usually detected on routine physical examination. It may not have been detected by the affected person because most abdominal masses develop slowly. An abdominal mass can be a sign of an abscess, a problem with a blood vessel (such as an aneurysm), an enlarged organ (such as the liver, spleen, or kidney), a tumor, or an accumulation of feces.

The abdomen is usually divided into 4 quadrants: right-upper quadrant, left-upper quadrant, right-lower quadrant, and left-lower quadrant. Other terms used to localize masses (or pain) in the abdomen include periumbilical, which describes the area around the navel, and epigastric, which describes the area in the center of the abdomen just below the ribcage. The location of the mass, and its firmness, texture, and other qualities can provide clues as to the cause of an abdominal mass.

Abdominal aortic aneurysm can cause a pulsating mass around the navel. Bladder distention (urinary bladder over-filled with fluid) can cause a firm mass in the center of the lower abdomen above the pelvic bones, and in extreme cases can extend as far up as the navel. Cholecystitis can cause a very tender mass that is felt below the liver in the right-upper quadrant (occasionally). Colon cancer can cause a mass almost anywhere in the abdomen. Crohn's disease or bowel obstruction can cause multiple tender, sausage-shaped masses anywhere in the abdomen. Diverticulitis can cause a mass that is usually located in the left-lower quadrant. Gallbladder tumor can cause a moderately tender, irregularly shaped right-upper quadrant mass. Hydronephrosis (fluid-filled kidney) can cause a smooth, spongy-feeling mass in one or both sides or toward the back (flank area). Kidney cancer can sometimes cause a mass in the abdomen. Liver cancer can cause a firm, lumpy mass in the right upper quadrant. Liver enlargement (hepatomegaly) can cause a firm, irregular mass below the right rib cage (right costal margin), or on the left side in the stomach area (epigastric). Neuroblastoma, a malignant tumor often found in the lower abdomen, that primarily occurs in children and infants. Ovarian cyst can cause a smooth, rounded, rubbery mass above the pelvis in the lower abdomen. Pancreatic abscess can cause a mass in the upper abdomen in the epigastric area. Pancreatic pseudocyst can cause a lumpy mass in the upper abdomen in the epigastric area. Renal cell carcinoma can cause a smooth, firm, nontender mass near the kidney (usually only affects one kidney). Spleen enlargement (splenomegaly) -- the edge of an enlarged spleen may sometimes be felt in the left-upper quadrant. Stomach cancer can cause a mass in the left-upper abdomen in the stomach area (epigastric) if the cancer is large. Uterine leiomyoma (fibroids) can cause a round, lumpy mass above the pelvis in the lower abdomen (occasionally can be felt if the fibroids are large). Volvulus can cause a mass anywhere in the abdomen. Ureteropelvic junction obstruction can cause a mass in the lower abdomen.

EGD - esophagogastroduodenoscopy
Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) is an examination of the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum with a small camera (flexible endoscope) which is inserted down the throat. A local anesthetic will be sprayed into mouth to suppress the need to cough or gag when the endoscope is inserted. A mouth guard will be inserted to protect teeth and the endoscope. Dentures must be removed. In most cases, an intravenous line will be inserted into arm to administer medications during the procedure. The endoscope will be advanced through the esophagus to the stomach and duodenum. Air will be introduced through the endoscope to enhance viewing. The lining of the esophagus, stomach, and upper duodenum is examined, and biopsies can be obtained through the endoscope. The test lasts about 5 to 20 minutes.

This test is helpful in determining, The cause of upper GI (gastrointestinal) bleeding; The cause of swallowing difficulties; The presence of ulcerations or inflammation; The cause of abdominal pain; The condition of the stomach and duodenum after an operation; The presence of tumors or other abnormalities of the upper GI tract; Narrowing or tumors of the esophagus

Gallstones
Illustrations
Gallstones are formed within the gallbladder, an organ that stores bile excreted from the liver. Bile is made up of water, salts, lecithin, cholesterol, and other substances. If the concentration of these components changes, gallstones may form. Gallstones may be as small as a grain of sand, or they may become as large as an inch in diameter, depending on how long they have been forming. Gallstones often have no symptoms and are usually discovered by a routine x-ray, surgery, or autopsy. Gallstones are a common health problem worldwide. They are more common in women, Other risk factors include ethnic and hereditary factors, obesity, diabetes, liver cirrhosis, long-term intravenous nutrition, and some operations for peptic ulcers.

Symptoms usually start after a stone of sufficient size (larger than 8 mm) blocks the cystic duct or the common bile duct. The cystic duct drains the gallbladder, and the common bile duct is the main duct draining into the duodenum. Together, these ducts form part of the biliary system. A stone blocking the opening from the gallbladder or cystic duct usually produces symptoms of biliary colic, which is right upper abdominal pain that feels like cramping. If the stone does not pass into the duodenum, but continues to block the cystic duct, acute cholecystitis results. Stones blocking the lower end of the common bile duct (where it enters the duodenum) may obstruct secretion from the pancreas, producing pancreatitis. This condition can also be serious and may require hospitalization. Gallstones are present in about 80% of people with gallbladder cancer.

Modern advances in surgery have revolutionized the treatment of gallstones. In the past, open cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal) was the usual procedure for uncomplicated cases. This operation required a medium-to-large incision just below the right lower rib in order to get to the gallbladder. After this operation, a patient typically spent 3 - 5 days in the hospital recovering. However, a minimally-invasive technique called laparoscopic cholecystectomy was introduced in the 1980s, which uses small incisions and camera guidance to remove the gallbladder. Currently, laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the gold standard for treating gallstones that cause symptoms and is one of the most common operations performed in hospitals today. Using this approach, a patient may have the gallbladder removed in the morning and be discharged from the hospital on the same evening or the next morning.

Gastric bypass
Gastric bypass surgery is one type of procedure that can be used to cause significant weight loss if one is very obese. The surgery reduces body's intake of calories. Calorie reduction is accomplished in two ways: After the surgery, stomach is smaller. One feels full faster and learn to reduce the amount that is eaten at any given time. Part of stomach and small intestines are literally bypassed (skipped over) so that fewer calories are absorbed. Unfortunately, sometimes nutrients are lost as well. The surgery is only right for you if one meets certain strict criteria. If one is not ready to make lifestyle changes (and have not tried hard to do so already), s/he will not be considered eligible for the procedure. Without changing lifestyle, the surgery will not be a success.

The surgery is performed under anesthesia. There are two basic steps. The first step in the surgical procedure makes stomach smaller. The surgeon divides the stomach into a small upper section and a larger bottom section using staples that are similar to stitches. The top section of the stomach (called the pouch) will hold food. After the stomach has been divided, the surgeon connects a section of the small intestine to the pouch. When one eats, the food will now travel from the pouch through this new connection ("Roux limb"), bypassing the lower portion of the stomach. The surgeon will then reconnect the base of the Roux limb with the remaining portion of the small intestines from the bottom of the stomach, forming a y-shape. Gastric bypass can be performed using a laparoscope. This less-invasive technique allows the surgeon to make smaller incisions, which lowers the risk of large scars and hernias after the procedure.

A newer procedure, called the Lap-Band, uses a band around the upper part of the stomach, creating a small pouch to hold food. The band limits the amount of food one can eat, and increases the time it takes the intestines to digest the food. The doctor can later adjust the band to allow food to pass more slowly or quickly through digestive system.
Gastric bypass surgery may be an option if one is significantly obese and have tried unsuccessfully to lose weight on diet and exercise programs and are unlikely to lose weight successfully with non-surgical methods. Gastric bypass surgery is not a "quick fix" for obesity. The surgery can take several hours and has risks and possible complications. For example, vomiting following the surgery is not uncommon because of eating more than the new, small stomach can accommodate.

Gastric ulcer
A gastric ulcer is a break in the normal tissue lining the stomach. Duodenal ulcer, which is a break in the normal tissue lining the duodenum (the first part of the small bowel). Benign gastric ulcers are caused by an imbalance between the secretion of acid and an enzyme called pepsin and the defenses of the stomach's mucosal lining. This leads to inflammation that may be aggravated by aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) such as ibruprofen. Risk factors for benign gastric ulcers include: Use of aspirin and NSAIDs; Helicobacter pylori infection; Chronic gastritis; Smoking; Increasing age; Mechanical ventilation (being put on a respirator).

For people with Helicobacter pylori infection, the main goal is eradication of the organism that causes the problem. Multiple regimens are effective and usually include either an H2 receptor antagonist such as famotidine (Pepcid) or nizatidine (Axid) or a proton pump inhibitor such as omeprazole (Prilosec) or esomeprazole (Nexium) to suppress acid, combined with two antibiotics. For people without H. pylori infection, ulcer-healing medications such as antacids, H2 receptor antagonists, or proton pump inhibitors are usually effective. Long-term treatment may be required. In the event of bleeding from the ulcer, endoscopic therapy can control bleeding in most cases. Surgical intervention may be recommended for people who do not respond to medical therapy or to endoscopic therapy for bleeding. A vagotomy (cutting the vagus nerve, which controls the stomach's production of gastric acid) or a partial gastrectomy (removal of part of the stomach) may be necessary.

Large bowel resection
Large bowel resection is surgery to remove part of your large bowel. The large bowel connects the small intestine to the anus. It is also called the large intestine or colon. In most cases, your bowel is cleaned before the surgery with enemas and medication. The surgery is performed under general anesthesia. A cut is made in abdomen. The diseased part of the large bowel is removed and the two healthy ends of the bowel are sewn back together (resected). The cut is closed. If the entire colon and rectum is removed, it is called a proctocolectomy.

A bowel resection may be performed as a traditional "open" procedure or as a mimimally invasive laparoscopic procedure. A temporary opening of the colon through the abdominal wall may be created. This is called a colostomy. The end of the bowel near the small intestine is then passed through the abdominal wall, and stitched in place. A drainage bag (stoma appliance) is placed around the opening. In most cases, the colostomy is temporary and can be closed with another operation at a later date. If a large portion of the bowel is removed, the colostomy may be permanent. Large bowel resection is used to treat a variety of conditions, including: Colon cancer; Diverticular disease; A block in the intestine due to scar tissue. Other reasons include: Ulcerative colitis; Traumatic injuries; Precancerous polyps; Familial polyposis.

(Information given here has been abridged from authentic sources like NIH, USA)